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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



%P CoiumnWfyj. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



A 



Grammar of English, 



IF^HTS I. -^2nt:d II. 



JOSEPH L. ARMSTRONG, A. M. 

Professor of English in Trinity College, N. C. 



! 




TRINITY COLLEGE, N. C: 
TRINITY COLLEGE PUBLICATION SOCIETY, 

1889. 






Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1889, 

By JOSEPH L. ARMSTRONG, 

in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



PRINTED BY 

THUMAS BROTHERS, 

GREENSBORO, M. 0. 



PREFACE. 



The purpose of this book is to bring the teaching 
of grammar in line with the new work in English, 
that the pupil may receive the right start. In the 
first place, the "Science of Grammar" is not prima- 
rily intended to teach the pupil " to speak the Eng- 
lish language correctly," but to subserve the purpose 
sought for in all other branches of study, namely, 
to train and to draw out the mind; it may after- 
wards serve the useful purpose of telling the pupil 
whether an expression is grammatically correct or 
incorrect. Moreover, Grammar is inextricably en- 
tangled with Rhetoric and Logic, and is, therefore, 
not to be unadvisely put into the hands of children. 
Their minds c&n memorize the forms and a few 
other of the simple facts, but such drill as this 
affords were better found in History, Geography. 
&c. When their growth begins to develop the 
logical powers of the mind, such a severe study as 
Grammar may be given them. As this point is 
reached at widely differing times by different indi- 
viduals, no fixed age for beginning the study of 
Grammar can be given; it must depend upon the 
judgment of the teacher. 

The best place to learn to speak the English 
language correctly is found in the association of 
those whose English is pure, and this place should 
be found for the child in the home. The few 



LC Control Number 



tmp96 028881 



iv Preface. 

moments of recitation are as nothing in the balance 
against hours of intercourse with companions. 
Those parents that allow their children to play 
with arabs and, in the South, with negroes, are 
allowing irreparable damage to be done, to say 
nothing of the moral question involved. It is no 
uncommon thing, though perhaps not so frequent 
as in former years, to hear a Southern boy, reared 
on a plantation, fall with some little excitement into 
the negro dialect. " Dah 'e go!" he cries, as a 
rabbit breaks from cover and jumps for life. But 
this is not the worst of it, for many inaccuracies, 
there learned, cling through life to his every-day 
speech. You may tell him of them time and again, 
and he replies he knows they are wrong, but he 
forgets. If theoretical knowledge and practice are 
at variance, all your teaching of "good grammar" 
is seed sown in stony ground, so far as speaking 
English correctly is concerned. 

In the historical study of the language, phonology 
now occupies a very important place, taking up, for 
instance, in the Cook-Sievers Grammar of Old 
English about half of the book, yet the treatment 
of Etymology in the ordinary Grammar is insuffi- 
cient and misleading, if not altogether false. Very 
few writers of Engligh Grammar. are qualified for 
their work by acquaintance with modern Philology, 
and the few grammarians that have such qualifica- 
tion are as a rule confined to this higher sphere of 
study and are unable to adapt themselves to the 
needs of beginners; yet pupils must be so trained 
in the preparatory schools that there shall not be a 



Preface. v 

mass of superstition to unlearn before even a begin- 
ning can be made upon the preparatory work which 
should be finished before the college course 'is 
begun. It is the object of this Grammar to give 
such preparation, and in giving it to afford a thor- 
ough logical drill. In this edition, Parts I and II 
are given, and so much of Part III as will indicate 
the method of parsing to be used. Part III, Con- 
structions, will be ready a year later. It is the in- 
tention to treat the Syntax of English just as the 
Syntax of a foreign language is treated for learners. 
In the preparation of Part I (Sounds), acknowl- 
edgement of indebtedness is made to Sweet's Hand- 
book of Phonetics, Sievers's Grundzilge der Phonetik, 
and, for the physiological discussion, to the lectures 
and the private experiments of Dr. Techmer of the 
University of Leipsic. In the treatment of the rest, 
many grammars have been consulted, but the 
author desires to express his acknowledgement of 
the debt due his former instructors, Prof. T. R. 
Price, now of Columbia College, and Prof. R. E. 
Blackwell, of Randolph-Macon, who started him 
aright in the study of English, and who have ever 
been ready to lend a helping hand. 

Joseph L. Armstrong. 

Front Royal, Va., Aug. 20th, 1889. 



CONTENTS. 



Introductory page 9 

PART I.-SOUNDS. 

Instruments of Sound 10 

Analysis of Sounds : Definitions 12 

Vowels in Accented Syllables. ... 12 
Vowels in Unaccented Syllables. . . 13 

Glides 14 

Consonants 14 

Synthesis of Sounds : Diphthongs 16 

Sounds Adjacent 17 

PART II.-FORMS. 



Definitions 22 

NOUNS : Classification 23 

Gender 23 

Person 24 

Number 24 

Case 26 

Declension 28 

Pronouns : Classification 30 

Personal Pronouns 30 

Demonstrative Pronouns 31 

Interrogative Pronouns 31 

Relative Pronouns 32 

Indeterminate Pronouns 33 

Possessive Pronouns 33 

Distributives and Reflexives 34 



Vll 

Adjectives: Classification; Comparison page 35 

Verbs : Classification and Definition 36 

Voice and Mood 38 

Tense and Number 39 

Non-Finite Forms .... 39 

Conjugation 40 

Paradigms 42 

Adverbs 48 

Connectives : 50 

Prepositions 51 

Conjunctions 52 

Interjections 53 

Appendix 54-57 



. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



English Grammar treats of the sounds, the forms 
and the constructions of the English Language, and 
will be considered under the three heads thus indi- 
cated. 

Under Part I will be treated elementary sounds, 
the manner of their formation by the organs of 
speech, and their combination; under part Part II, 
the forms and the use of the Parts of Speech; and 
under Part III will be discussed the rules of joining 
words together to form sentences — Constructions. 



F> A RT I 

SOUNDS. 



i. 

INSTRUMENTS OF SOUND. 

1. The organs of speech consist of the lungs 
and wind-pipe, the larynx, the pharynx, and the 
mouth. 

2. The upper end of the wind-pipe is enlarged 
and is called the larynx (Adam's apple'). Within 
the larynx are fastened two elastic ligaments. They 
close the end of the wind-pipe like lips, and are so 
devised that they can open and shut, lengthen and 
contract very much as do the lips. These ligaments 
are called VOCal chords, and the space between them, 
the glottis. Lying upon the top of the larynx and 
closing it is the epiglottis, a muscular valve which 
opens by raising its rear edge and turning it back 
against the root of the tongue. 

3. The pharynx is the cavity between the larynx 
and the mouth, and may have its size and shape 
modified by the various positions that can be as- 
sumed by the tongue, cheeks, &c. 



Sounds. i i 

4. The mouth is the space between the lips. It is 
sometimes loosely used as a name for mouth and 
pharynx. The context will indicate where it is so 
used here. 

5. The 'roof of the mouth' consists of the hard 
(the front) palate and the soft (the back) palate. 
From the rear extremity of the soft palate depends 
the uvula which can swing backward and forward 
and which, when pressed back, serves as a valve to 
close the passage into the nose. When this passage 
is left open, or partly open, nasalization of the vowel 
follows. 

6. If the vocal chords are kept widely separate, 
that is, if the glottis is wide open, while air is driv- 
en out by compression of the lungs, only the friction 
of the outflowing breath is heard. Voice is heard 
when the laryngeal lips, the cords, are brought so 
close together that the air, as it is forced out, causes 
them to vibrate. An intermediate position, when 
the chords are almost close enough to vibrate, gives 
whisper (in the phonetic sense). 

7. The current of air, forced out of the lungs, 
whether the glottis make it voice, whisper, or breath, 
suffers two kinds of modification: first, by the shape 
of the pharynx and lips; secondly, by the kind and 
the place of the resistance with which it meets. 
The position of the tongue, compression or disten- 
sion of the cheeks, rounding or widening of the lips, 
modify sound by modifying the shape of the passage; 
and the forcing of the current of air over the pha- 
ryngeal surfaces, through narrowed passages, or 
checking it, superimposes other peculiarities. 



12 Sounds. 

II. 
ANALYSIS OF SOUNDS. 

8. Voice is sound produced by vibration of the 
vocal chords. 

9. A Vowel is voice modified by some definite 
adjustment of the parts of the mouth, but without 
audible friction. 

10. Glides are transitional sounds produced dur- 
ing the passage from otie position to the nex-t. 

11. A Consonant is the result of audible friction, 
squeezing or stopping of the breath in some part of 
the mouth. 

12. A Diphthong is the combination of a full vowel 
with a glide-vowel, which may go before or come 
after the full vowel. 



Vowels in Accented Syllables. 

13. Vowels are classified, according to the 
position of the tongue in making them, into front 
(made in middle and front of mouth) and back 
(made in back of mouth); sometimes called 'palatal 
and 'guttural,' respectively. 

14. In the following classification, the different 
vowel sounds are indicated in such manner as was 
possible with the font of type used. 







Sounds 






GUTTURALS. 




PALATALS. 




(Back Vowels) 




(Front Vowels) 


I. 


ah as in arm, father. 




8. a as in pat. 


2. 


0' " n<n, what. 




9. a " branch 


3- 


a " all. 




10. a " fate. 


4- 


" ntfte. 




11. ee " meet. 


5- 


« " r#le, m<wn. 




12. e " xnet. 


6. 


<;»<? " -wood.. 




13. e " *rr. 


7- 


u " tub. 




14. i " pz'n. 



13 



The learner should practise, both orally and by 
written exercise, till he can unerringly describe and 
pronounce any vowel-sound by itself. 

Examples: — ' not,' vowel-sound <?'; 'rude,' vowel- 
sound ii\ 'eight, 'vowel-sound a; 'machzne,' vowel, 
sound ee; 'hurt,' 'bird,' vowel-sound e. 

Any book will furnish a practice-list of words. 



B. 
Vowels in Unaccented Syllables. 

15. By 'unaccented syllables' are meant here those 
that have the least stress of voice. All back vowels 
(together with e in err), when they become obscure, 
as in such syllables, approach the sound of u in 
upon,' and u may serve for the symbol of this 
obscure vowel; while all front vowels (except e) 
tend in like situation to sound like i in d/vide and 
may be written 1. In rapid speech, 1 is apt to pass 
into u. 

Examples: ability (ubility), sofa (sofu), oppose 
(upose); filigree (fil/gree, or fih/gree). 



i4 Sounds. 

C. 

Glides. 

16. The tongue must have one position to make 
k, and another to make i. To pass from the one to 
the other requires time, however infinitesimally 
short; and, the stream of breath continuing, a 
transitional sound is produced. Since position of 
some part of the mouth must be changed every 
time a new vowel or consonant is made, it follows 
that the sounds must be connected by the glide so 
long as the flow of breath is uninterrupted. In 
such cases, the changing parts naturally take the 
directest route. Glides are called 'on-glides' and 
'off-glides,' as they precede or follow a sound, and 
there may be vowel-glides as well as consonant- 
glides. 

(a) It must be carefully noted that the off-glide-vowel 
usually stops before it reaches the vowel position toward which 
it is moving. 

17. Besides these 'direct' glides, there are 
' roundabout ' glides. Suppose a glide from the k to 
the //-position and on, without stopping, to the i- 
position, and kw/' (as in 'quit') is the result, where 
w represents the glide past the //-position. 



D. 

Consonants. 

18. The nature of a consonant is determined (1) 
by the part of the mouth in which it is made, and 
(2) by the form which that part assumes. 



Sounds. 15 

(1.) There are, roughly speaking, four positions 

(a) Lip — including consonants formed by lips, or lips and 
teeth ; as ft, f. 

{b) Front— including those formed by the end of the tongue 
with the help of the gum or the teeth ; as/, th. 

(c) Middle — including those formed by the front part of the 
tongue with the help of the hard palate ; as sh, j. 

(d) Back — including those formed by the back of the tongue 
with the help of the soft palate ; as k, ng. 

Note. — A simple sound may have a compound formation, as 
w, in making which the lips and the back are used at the same 
time. 

(2.) According to form, there are two main 
classes, open and shut. By the term ' open ' is meant 
that the stream of breath, more or less squeezed in 
passing, is allowed to flow on out of the mouth ; 
and, by the term 'shut,' that the stream of breath 
is stopped. 

(a) Varieties of open consonants are /, in forming which 
the middle of the passage is closed and the sides left open ; the 
nasals, whose formation requires that the mouth be closed 
while the nose-passage is left open; and the trilled r. made by 
a rapid vibratory motion of the end of the tongue. This r is 
infrequent in America, the usual r being made by a weak 
squeeze with a downward and slightly forward motion of the 
tongue. 

19. There remains to be considered another 
modification of consonants. According to the defi- 
nition, consonants are the result of audible friction, 
squeezing, or stopping, of the breath. If the vocal 
chords remain passive, the consonant is said to be 
voiceless; if, however, a hum of the vocal chords 



16 Sounds. 

accompanies the formation of the consonants, the 
consonant is said to b'e voiced. 

(a) Theoretically, then, consonants exist in pairs, voiceless 
and voiced, and they are in fact generally so found. It will 
be noticed that the so-called 'liquids,' /, m, n, r, are voiceless 
when initial, and voiced when medial or final in a word. In 
the table below are found 29 elementary consonants, which 
added to the 14 elementary vowels, give 43 elementary sounds. 



( °p en 


HP. 

f m 


FRONT. 

s th r 1 n 


MIDDLE. 

"~ sh~~ 


BACK. 

h nk 


LIP-BACK 

wh 


(shut 


P 


t 

z dh r 1 n 


tch 

zh 


k 




1 Open. 


v m 


w 


Voiced. \ 

(Shut. 


b 


d 


j 


■ 





(a) The sound of tch is found in match } charch ; 
" " dh is the th in then ■ 
" " " zh is found in a^ure, pleasure. 
The pupil should be carefully drilled till he can tell how and 
where a consonant is formed. 

{b) The line of division between vowels and consonants is 
not always clear, some sounds passing from one to the other 
class almost imperceptibly. 



III. 

SYNTHESIS OF SOUNDS. 

A. 

Diphthongs. 

21. The long vowels in English have a diph- 
thongal tendency which is very decided in certain 



Sounds. 17 

positions, as the <z-sound inth^j/, where the off-glide 
is very distinct. 

22. "The glide-vowels can be held or lengthened 
into true vowels without destroying the diphthongic 
character of the whole combination, provided the 
continuity of stress be observed." — {Sweet.) Thus 
the off-glide in z (as in high) maybe carried on into 
the ee without destroying the diphthong. 

23. There are five diphthongs recognized by 
grammarians — z (hz'gh), z (hz'ght), oi (boil), an (now, 
h<?zzse), and yu* (mz/te). 

(a) Besides these, there are others, more or less distinct, 
according to the value of the glide, such as thea-sound in 'vale' 
the ar-sound in ' far. ' 

It is, however, unnecessary to give an extended list here, a 
careful application of the definition being sufficient to discover 
them. Moreover, some diphthongs are secondary, that is, 
dependent upon position. The a, for instance, becomes a 
diphthong in 'hay,' ' veil,' where it is final and where it stands 
before an /, but not in 'take,' where it precedes a k. 



B. 

Sounds Adjacent. 

24. It must be carefully borne in mind that a 
letter is not a sound, but the symbol of a sound, and 
that in English several of these symbols often 
represent the same sound; moreover that the same 

*The English y is often weakened into glide- (ill), as in ' you,' 'young,' 
..." (Sweet.) Sweet, however, in his specimens of sound notation, 
represents the y as a consonant; but I fail ordinarily to distinguish any 
"audible friction"in the formation of the sound in American pronunciation, 
and prefer, with Dr. Morris, to recognize the long « always as a diphthong 
The.)-, in the occasional instances in which it occurs, as a consonant, is 
found, according to my observation, in the pronunciation of those who 
give the front sound to h in such words as 'hue' (where the /: is squeezed), 
but this is not a regular sound in English. 



i8 Sounds. 

symbol often represents various sounds; and that 
the alphabet is insufficient for the number of sounds. 

25. A syllable is an elementary sound, or a 
combination of elementary sounds, uttered with one 
impulse of the voice. 

26. A word consists of one or more syllables, 
and is used to express an idea. 

27. The distinction between 'long' and 'short' 
belongs to consonants as well as to vowels, the // in 
'ma;/,' for example, requiring more time than the nn 
in ' ma««er." "In English, final consonants are 
long after short, short after long vowels, as in 'hill.' 
' heel.' L and the nasals are long before voice, short 
before voiceless consonants, as in 'build,' 'built.'" 
(Sweet.) 

28. A syllable may, therefore, be long while the 
vowel is short. In 'bit,' vowel and syllable are both 
short; in 'bid,' the vowel is short, but the syllable is 
lengthened by the protraction of the consonant. 

29. By open syllable is meant one that ends in a 
vowel ; by closed syllable is meant one that ends in 
a consonant; as in ka-ter, Aat-ter. 

30. It may be taken as a general rule that the 
longs, ah, o, ee, '/, ii, are found in open syllables, 
while the shorts, 6, it, a, e, i, and the half-long diph- 
thong }, are found in closed syllables; as f^7/-ther, 
but fo't-ter; n<;-ble, but kiWt-ty fee-ling, tellow, 
&c. The long sounds are sometimes indicated by 
doubling, or by a combination, such as au, ou, aw, 
ow, and especially in final closed syllables, by an 
appended silent e, as mat?; but met. 

31. There is a constant effort on the part of the 



Sounds. 19 

tongue, which must fly with lightning-like rapidity 
from position to position, to take the straightest, 
easiest route. It is, in part, this never-ending at- 
tempt at adjustment of sounds that brings about 
changes in pronunciation; and, while the sounds 
within a syllable, being uttered with one impulse of 
the voice, naturally have a potent mutual influence, 
this influence is strongly felt between the syllables 
also. A difficult sound, or combination of sounds, 
is apt, by anticipation, to affect a sound in the pre- 
ceding syllable. An example of this within the 
syllable is found in §27; and the occasional trans- 
position in rapid conversation, of the initial conso- 
nants, is an instance of the second case. The th in 
'with,' 'beneath,' tends to become voiceless when a 
voiceless consonant immediately follows; etc. 

32. According to strict phonetic analysis, divi- 
sion of syllables is made by the beginning of each 
new voice-impulse. In English, this impulse de- 
creases in force to the end of the syllable, enabling 
the ear the more readily to distinguish between 
syllables, but it sometimes occurs that an impulse 
ends with the on-glide of a consonant and the new 
impulse begins with the off-glide of the same, so 
that a syllable might end, so to speak, in the middle 
of a consonant. On account of this and of the 
faulty sound-symbolization in English, it is impos- 
sible to indicate accurately the division of syllables. 

33. Syllabification must be made to lend its help 
to sound-notation. The general rule, therefore, is, 
in accordance with §30, that a single consonant goes 
with the following syllable, and that two or more are 



20 Sounds. 

divided between the preceding and the succeeding 
syllable. It is a rule without exception, however, 
that the syllabification should be so adjusted as best 
to represent the sound of each syllable; thus ma-jor, 
but mal-a-dy; per-e-grin-a-tion. 

(a) It is always a safe rule to take care that a syllable shall 
be left open when the vowel is long, and closed when the vowel 
is short. Combinations like tk, sk, represent elementary 
sounds and are therefore not to be divided. Such as st, tr, when 
preceded by a consonant, always go with the following syllable: 
ac-tress, in-stance ; and they do so when alone, if the following 
syllable is the accented one : a-rroc'i-ty, de-stroy.'' 

34- Accent (or stress) is "the comparative force 
with which the separate syllables of a sound-group 
are pronounced." {Sweet.) 

(a) There is no limit to the degrees of force in accent. 
Even the so-called unaccented syllables have a slight stress, or 
they would not be heard. It is unnecessary to notice — and in- 
deed it would be impossible to register — all these degrees. 
The stress of a word varies with its use, and even the relative 
stress of the syllables is not always the same. 

35. It is sufficient to note three degrees of stress: 
primary, secondary, weak. 

(a) It should be constantly borne in mind that these terms 
are only relative. The primary accent in one word may be no 
stronger than the secondary in another; it is meant that the 
primary is the strongest accent in this particular word. 

(b) In English, there must in general be an alternation of 
stress, such as primary-weak, or secondary-weak, or primary- 
secondary, or the reverse. Primary is marked (') secondary 
("), and weak is left unmarked, as in crim"i-nal'i-ty. In this 
word, the ty has more stress than the first i, and that 



Sounds. 21 

more than the * in the fourth syllable ; but for the purpose of 
indicating pronunciation, two diacritics are sufficient. One, 
however, does not suffice ; consequently, Webster and several 
other authorities leave the pronunciation of a number of long 
words uncertain. 

36. Emphasis is sentence-stress. Just as change 
in the position of word-accent so changes its features 
as often to make it unrecognizable, so variation of 
emphasis may change the meaning of a sentence. 

(a) The consideration of this subject belongs more properly 
to elocution, to which the further treatment of it is left. 



PART II. 



FORMS. 



37. Words are divided, according to their 
meaning and use, into eight classes: Noun, Pronoun, 
Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, 
Interjection. 

38. A Noun is the name of a particular object, or 
set of objects (to which it is permanently attached).* 

39. A Pronoun is a name that may be applied to 
any one of all objects (but is not permanently 
attached to it). 

40. An Adjective is a word used to describe or 
define the meaning of a Noun or a Pronoun. 

41. A Verb is a word that declares or asserts. 

42. An Adverb is a word used to modify the 
meaning of a Verb, an Adjective, or an Adverb. 

43. A Preposition is a word used to show the use 
of Nouns and Pronouns. 

44. A Conjunction is a word used to connect 
words, phrases and clauses (and shows the relative 
value of the terms connected). 

45. An Interjection is a word used as an excla- 
mation, and has no grammatical connection with 
the other words of the sentence. 

*The portion of definitions found in parentheses is merely e.\[>lanatory and may 
be omitted when reasons are assigned in parsing. It serve- ill this instance to call 
attention to the true distinction between the Noun and the Pronoun 



Nouns. 23 

1. 

NOUNS. 



46. There are two classes of Nouns, common and 
proper. 

47. A common Noun is a name applied to each one 
of a set of objects possessing certain features in 
common, as horse, chair, table. 

48. A Proper Noun is a name given absolutely to 
an object, without reference to its characteristics, as 
Raleigh, John, North Carolina. 

49. Nouns have four properties: Gender, Per- 
son, Number, Case. 

A. 
Gender. 

50. "Gender is a grammatical distinction, and 
applies to words only. Sex is a natural distinction, 
and applies to living objects? {Morris?) 

(a) Formerly gender depended upon endings for its dis- 
tinctions; but since English has lost the great body of its 
inflections, gender has come to correspond more nearly with sex. 

51. Gender is of three kinds: Masculine, Femi- 
nine, Neuter. 

52. Nouns that name male beings are masculine; 
those that name females are feminine, and those 
that name things without sex are neuter. 

(a) When a Noun may name either a male or a female, or 
both, it is said to be common. 

(b) Neuter objects may by personification be considered as 
male or female. 



24 Nouns. 

B. 

Person. 

53. Person is a property by which the person 
speaking (the first person), or the person spoken to 
(the second), or the person spoken of (the third) is 
indicated. 

54. Nouns usually indicate the third person. 
They may by address indicate the second person, 
but they can never of themselves indicate the first, 
though they are sometimes said to be of the first 
person by apposition with a pronoun of the first 
person. 

c. 

Number. 

55. Number indicates whether one or more than 
one is meant. 

56. There are two Numbers: the Singular, which 
is used when only one thing is meant; and the 
Plural, used when more than one are meant. 

57. In English, the stem (the base-form) of a 
Noun is found in the singular. 

58. The Plural of a Noun is regularly formed by 
adding es to the Singular: box, boxes; church, 
churches. 

(a) This is the case when the Noun ends in a middle conso 
nant, or in -s, or in -z, or in (though not always) -0 preceded 
by a consonant. 

(6) When the Noun ends in a silent e, it is dropped before 
the e of the Plural: house, houses. 

(c) The s, in -es, has the sound of 2. 

(d) Some nouns ending in an /-sound— (-f,-ff>-f e ) change 



Nouns. 25 

{/)/ to v and drop the* from/*.- leaf, leaves > knife, knives ; 
staff staves, (also .rta^r, in certain senses.) 

59. The Plural is irregularly formed'. 

I. By adding -S. 

(a) This form is derived from the regular Plural by dropping 
the e whenever the pronunciation will admit of it ; and by it 
the majority of Nouns are pluralized: book, books ; boy, boys; 
valley, valleys ; folio, folios. 

(b) The -J has its proper voiceless sound after a voiceless 
consonant ; but it becomes a voiced consonant (z), in sound, 
after a vowel or a voiced consonant: hatr, apes; but boys 
(boy.?), tuhy (tub.?). 

(c) Some Nouns whose stem ends in th change it to dk 
when the -s is added, and the s then becomes z in sound 
(voiced with voiced): path, paths (padhz) ; oath oaths (oadhz), 
&c. 

II. By adding -en, with or without other changes: 
ox, oxen; brother (in one sense), brethren; child; 
children. 

(a) The r in children is the remnant of another plural 
termination to which -en was afterwards appended. 

III. By Vowel-Change: man, men; woman, wo- 
men {wimmen); foot, feet; goose, geese; tooth, 
teeth; mouse, mice; louse, lice. 

IV. By using the unchanged Stem : swine, sheep, 
deer, shad. 

(a) Certain words, such as brace, dozen, pair, yoke, cannon, 
follow this rule to indicate more than one of the same kind 
when the number is given, and add an s to indicate different 
kinds, or when there is no numerical limitation: three pair of 
gloves ; but, in pairs; &c. 



26 Nouns. 

60. The Plural of letters and of figures is formed 
by adding 's, and any part of speech, referred to as 
a word, is often treated in the same way: "Dot your 
zV; "Three ^s"; " He uses too many f's and me s 
and my s" 

61. Words taken from foreign languages and not 
yet anglicized form the Plural according to the lan- 
guage from which they are taken: genus, genera; 
stratum, strata; phenomenon, phenomena. 

NOTE. — Peculiarities in the formation of the Plural should 
be learned from use and from dictionaries. 

D 

Case. 

62. The Relation of a Noun to the other words of 
a sentence is shown in three ways: 

I. By Position; as, ' Men build houses,' where it 
is known that men is the subject, houses the object, 
by their respective positions. 

II. By an Ending; as, 'Lord Marmion s steed 
rushed by.' 

III. By a Preposition; as, 'We silently gazed on 
the face of the dead' The Preposition takes the 
place of the Ending. 

63. Case is the use of a Noun (or of a Pronoun) 
to show its relation to the other words in a sentence. 

(a) Case may be indicated either by an ending or by posi- 
tion. In II, the s shows that the word is in the Genitive ; in 
I, the position shows that ' men' is in the Nominative. 

64. English has four Cases, which include all the 



Nouns. 27 

uses of the Noun (or of the Pronoun) except those 
shown by a Preposition. 

65. The Cases are Nominative, Genitive, Dative, 
Accusative. 

(a) This nomenclature is adopted for several reasons. The 
various uses gathered under these Cases agree in their main 
points throughout English, German, Latin, and Greek ; and 
when a pupil, familiar with the names in English, comes to 
Declension in these other languages, he has that much less to 
learn. An instance of how much trouble a little thing can 
give is found in the unnecessary change in order of position 
of the Cases in Sweet's Grammar of Old English, where 
beginners never fail to become confused. 

In the next place, although instances of the Objective Geni- 
tive may be rare in Modern English, they nevertheless exist, 
and there is no such advantage in the name ' Possessive ' as 
would warrant its retention. In fact, that name invariably 
causes the beginner to confuse the Genitive of the Pronouns 
with Possessive Pronouns. 'Objective' is a word used in 
various significations, while ' Accusative ' is properly reserved 
for the name of a Case, and is, therefore, scientifically more 
correct. 

66. The principal use of the Nominative is to 
denote the subject of a verb: 'The earth is the 
Lord's.' 

(a) Other uses are the Predic'ative, the Absolute, the In- 
dependent. These will be discussed under Part III, where a 
full discussion of all the Cases will be found. 

67. The principal use of the Genitive is to indi- 
cate possession: 'A boys will is the wind's will.' 

(a) This is the Subjective use of the Genitive. Beside it, 



28 Nouns. 

there is the Objective Genitive. (Instances of the latter are 
generally found in Pronouns ; as, ' Your election by the people, 
that is, 'the election of which you are the object.') 

68. The Dative indicates the indirect object of a 
i verb (" that to or for which anything is, or is done") : 
>' He gives his parents no anxiety.' 

69. The principal uses of the Accusative are to 
indicate the direct object of a verb: 'Great princes 
have great playthings ; and to indicate the Noun (or 
the Pronoun) used with a Preposition: l A hundred 
of the foe shall be a banquet for the mountain birds. ,' 

(a) Other uses are the Predicative : 'They made Victoria 
queen'; and the Adverbial : ' He is six years old.' 



DECLENSION. 

70. Inflection is the change which a word under- 
goes to express various relations. 

(a) Formerly in English, Inflection consisted in change in 
form ; but, since the language has lost all but a bare remnant 
of its endings, other devices— such as position — have come 
into use to help express these relations, and ' Inflection ' is 
here used to cover the whole. 

71. Declension is the inflection of a Noun (or a 
Pronoun) to indicate its use. 

(a) The full Declension of a Noun (or a Pronoun) consists 
in its inflection to show case and number. 



72. 

Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 



Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 



Nouns. 
Declension of the Noun. 



Sing. PL 

bird birds 

bird's birds' 

bird birds 

bird birds 

Sing. PL 

man men 

man's men's 

man men 



Sing. 
boy 
boy's 
boy 
boy 



2 9 



PL 



PL Sing. 

boys fly flies 

boys' fly's flies' 

boys fly flies 

boys fiy flies 



Sing. PL Sing. PL 

deer deer boyhood 

deer's deer's boyhood's 

deer deer boyhood 

deer deer boyhood — — 



Nom. Smith Smiths Henry Henrys 

Gen. Smith's Smiths' Henry's Henrys' 

Dat. Smith Smiths Henry Henrys 

Ace. Smith Smiths Henry Henrys 

(1). The Nominative, the Dative and the Accusa- 
tive are, in Nouns, distinguished by position and by 
context, not by endings. 

(2 ) The Genitive Singular is regularly formed 
by adding 's to the Nominative ; and the Genitive 
Plural by adding the apostrophe to the Nominative 
Plural. 



(a) The old rule used the apostrophe and omitted the s 
for the Genitive Singular, when the stem ended in an j-sound; 
but the present tendency is to use the s, unless an ineuphonic 
combination should result, and, then, to substitute a preposi- 
tional phrase: 'Lycurgus's laws,' 'Morris's Grammar,' 'Pierce's 
Grammar'; bur, 'For the sake of justice,'' (not 'For justice' 
sake,' nor 'For justice's sake'). In time-worn expressions, 
such as 'the wrath of Peleus' son,' 'for conscience' sake,' the 
old rule is still observed. 



3Q 



Pronouns. 



(b) Nouns whose Plural does not end in s take 's in the 
Genitive Plural. 

(c) The 's is attached to the last element of compounds: 
'Son-in-law's house', 'Henry the First's reign.' 



II. 

PRONOUNS. 

73. There are six classes of Pronouns: Personal, 
Demonstrative, Interrogative, Relative, Indeterminate, 
and Possessive. 

74- Personal Pronouns are those that indicate im- 
mediately (without the help of an intervening name) 
the object to be designated. 

(a) Personal pronouns do not indicate gender, refer to per- 
sons or to things personified, and have forms for but two 
Persons, the First and the Second. 



75- 



Declension of Personal Pronouns. 



First Person. 



Sin%. Pin. 

Norn. I we 

*Gen. my our 

Dat. me us 

Ace. me us 



Second 

Present Form. 

Slug. PI. 
you you 
your your 
you you 
you you 



Person. 

Old Form. 

Sing. PI. 

thou ye 

thy your 

thee you 

thee you 



76. Demonstrative Pronouns are those that point 
out definitely an object: lie, this, that, such, &c. 

(a) As, in English, the use of a word determines to what 
Part of Speech it belongs, so use determines when any of these 
words, except he, which is always a Demonstrative Pronoun, 
belongs to this class or to some other Part of Speech. 

♦When the Adjective forms lost their endings they became like the Genitives, 
and my, our, thy, your, may be parsed as Adjectives or as Genitives of the Pro- 
nouns. Thine, an older form of thy, is found before words beginning with a vowel 
sound. 



Pronouns. 31 

yy. Declension of Demonstrative Pronouns, 
The Determinative. 





Singular. 




Plu. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


All Genders. 


Nom. 


he 


she 


it 


they 


Gen. 


his 


her 


its 


their 


Dat. 


him 


her 


it 


them 


Ace. 


him 


her 


it 


them 



(a) This refers to an object near, that to one remote, and 
he to an object before mentioned, without regaid to its relative 
position, and is, therefore, the commonly used Pronoun of the 
Third Person. 

(b) This and that lack the Genitive. This has for its Plural 
these ; that, those. 



yS. Interrogative Pronouns are those used in ask- 
ing- questions: who, which, what (and, in the Bible, 
whether) . 

(a) Who is always a Pronoun, but which and what are 
sometimes used interrogatively as Adjectives, and they must 
be called Adjectives when they are so used. 

(0) English of the time of the Authorized Version of the 
Bible used whether as an Interrogative Pronoun: "Whether 
of them twain did the will of his father." — Matt. xxi. 31. 



79- 


Declension o 


F INTERROGAT] 


[VE PR 


ONOUN 




Sing, and PI. 


Sing, and PL 


Sing. 


and PL 


Nom. 


who 


which 




what 


Gen. 


whose 










Dat. 


whom 


which 




what 


Ace. 


whom 


which 




what 



80. Who is used of persons; what, of everything 



32 Pronouns. 

else; which, when one, or more, is to be selected 
out of a number of persons or things; and whether 
was used when 'which of two' was meant. 

81. A Relative Pronoun refers to a Noun (or to 
another Pronoun) in the same sentence, and joins 
to this Noun an expression that describes it: who, 
which, and that. 

(a) The Noun (or the Pronoun) thus referred to is called 
the Antecedent, because it usually goes before the Relative. 

(d) Who and which are taken from the Interrogatives, and 
that from the Demonstratives. 

82. (1) But is sometimes used after a negative 
expression as a Relative, and is then equivalent to 
'that . . not': 'There is no fireside . . but 
has one vacant chair.' 

(2) As, after 'such,' 'same, 1 is called a Relative: 
' Such as I have, give I unto you ' ; ' Give such things 
as you can spare.' 

(a) It is, however, a spurious Relative, having in the last 
example, for instance, ' things' for its antecedent, but joins the 
limiting expression to 'such'. Both these woids, in fact, are 
in this use the result of contractions. But comes from ' but 
(Preposition) that (or those) which,' andas, from 'as (conjunc- 
tion) those are (or, this is^ which.' 

83. Declension of Relative Pronouns. 

Sing, and PI. Sing, and PL Sing, and PL 
Nom. who which that 

Gen. whose (whose) 

Dat. whom which that 

Ace. whom which that 

(a) Which is originally adjectival, and, when it uses a 



Pronouns. 33 

Genitive, borrows it from who. That varies from the Demon- 
strative that in taking the same form for the plural as for the 
singular, instead of those. The Dative of the Relative is not 
often found, a Preposition with the Accusative generally being 
substituted. 

84. Who refers to persons, which to things, and 
that to persons or things, or to both. 

(a) Notice that the difference in Relatives is not the same 
as the difference in Interrogatives. That is also used restric- 
tively. A further discussion will be given in Part III. 

85. As is used only in the Nominative and the 
Accusative (both numbers), and but is used only in 
the Nominative (both numbers). 



86. Indeterminate Pronouns leave undetermined 
the object referred to, or the number, or some other 
characteristic. They are such as who, what, who- 
ever, whatever, whichever, one, some, aught, enough, 
any, many, few, with many compounds arising from 
these and others. 

87. These Pronouns occur in the Nominative and 
the Accusative; several are used in the Dative, and 
a Genitive as well is found for one. 



88. Possessive Pronouns both name the object 
possessed and indicate the possessor. They are de- 
rived from Genitives of Personals and of Demon- 
stratives, and are in form double Genitives; mine, 
ours; thine, yours; his, hers, its, theirs. 

89. They have, of course, no Genitive. All the 



•34 Pronouns. 

other cases are used in both numbers, but there is 
no change of form. 



90. *Pronouns are easily recognized and classi- 
fied, if the definitions are well-known and under- 
stood. Such groups as Distributives and Reflexives 
do not constitute main classes, but are peculiar uses 
of certain Pronouns already classified, and include 
others that, by nature of their fundamental force, 
belong to one of the classes given and have these 
peculiarities. 

91. Distributives include or exclude all objects by 
taking them one at a time. There are two: each, 
either (neither). 

(a) Each is a Demonstrative when it refers to objects defin- 
itely pointed out, but an Indeterminate when the objects re- 
ferred to have not been definitely indicated. 

(i>) Either (neither) is always an Indeterminate. 

92. Reflexives refer to the same person or thing 
indicated by the subject. 

(a) The Personal Pronouns and the Determinative are some- 
times used reflexively, but the Reflexives most used are com- 
pound forms derived from these: myself, ourselves; thyself, 
yourself, yourselves ; himself, herself, itself, themselves. 

(o) Reflexives are used in the Dative and in the Accusative. 

*It is the custom in some grammars to ignore the fact that an Adjective ever be- 
comes a Pronoun, or vice-versa, and this, that, each, &c, are always called Ad- 
j ectives, and which , -what, &c, are always called Pronouns. This is a vicious 
error, and cannot be too strongly condemned. In English, the main distinction is 
use, not form, and it is in learning to distinguish the class by the use that the crit- 
ical and the logical faculties receive their training from the science of grammar. 



Adjectives. 35 

III. 

ADJECTIVES. • 

93. An Adjective is a word used to qualify the 
meaning of a Noun or a Pronoun. 

(a) There are two main classes of Adjectives: Descriptive s 
and Limitives. 

94. Descriptives qualify by assigning some quality: 
good, sweet, white. 

95. Limitives qualify by limiting the meaning or 
the application: all, that, fourth. 

96. Adjectives, which had at one time a fuller 
set of endings than the Noun, have lost them all 
except those for Comparison. 

97. Comparison* is the inflection of the Adjective 
to denote degrees of quantity or of quality. 

98. There are three Degrees Of Comparison : Pos- 
itive, Comparative, Superlative. 

99. Adjectives are regularly compared: 

I. By suffixing to the Positive er (r) for the Com- 
parative, and est CSt) for the Superlative; tall, taller, 
tallest. 

(a) The Adjectives compared in this way are the mono- 
syllablics; those dissyllabics ending in -y, in -er, in -/<?, in -ble ; 
dissyllabics accented on the last syllable; and a few dissyllabics 
in which euphony admits of the termination: holier, holiest; 
tenderer, tender est ; abler, ablest j politer, politest ; narrower, 
narrowest. 

II. By the help of the Adverbs more, for the Com- 



*Some Adjectives, such as Numerals, do not admit of Comparison, but it is idle 
to assert that such as ' round,' ■ square,' 'perfect,' are not compared, when nu- 
merous instances of their comparison can be pointed out in good writers. More- 
over, the denial of their comparison is based upon the misconception that the Com- 
parative, or the Superlative, assigns more of a quality or of a quantity than is 
contained in the Positive — a false assumption. 



36 Adjectives. 

parative, and most, for the Superlative: learned, 
more learned, most learned. 

(a) Most Adjectives are compared in this way. 

ioo. A few Adjectives are irregularly compared; 
as, 



ositive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


good 


better 


best 


little 


less 


least 


much ? 
many \ 


more 


most 






bad 


worse 


worst 



(a) Some of this class are defective, lacking one or more of 
the forms. They are best learned from use and from the dic- 
tionary. 

ioi. A descending scale of Comparison is formed 
by the help of the Adverbs less and least: beautiful, 
less beautiful, least beautiful. . 

102. The Comparative Degree institutes a com- 
parison between two objects, or sets of objects, and 
assigns more or less of a quality or a quantity to 
one than is contained in the other, 

103. The Superlative Degree institutes a com- 
parison among three or more objects, or sets of ob- 
jects, and assigns to one of them the highest, or the 
least, degree of a quality or a quantity to be found 
among them. 



IV. 

VERBS. 

104. Verbs are divided, with respect to their use, 
into two classes: 

I. Transitive Verbs; 2. Intransitive Verbs. 



Verbs. 37 

105. A Transitive Verb expresses an action or a 
feeling that is directed towards some object: ' He 
kicked the ball.' 

106. An Intransitive Verb expresses a state or 
condition, or that action or feeling which is not di- 
rected towards some thing: 'It rains' 1 ; 'God is 
love.' 

107. Each of these classes is subdivided into two 
classes: Complete and Incomplete. 

108. A Complete Transitive Verbis one in which 
the predication is rendered complete by the object: 
' He felled the tree! 

109. An Incomplete Transitive Verb is one in 

which the predication is completed by a complemen- 
tary word which the verb affirms about the direct 
object: 'They made Victoria queen! 

1 10. A Complete Intransitive Verb is one in which 
the predication is rendered complete in the verb 
itself: ' He ran away'; 'The child speaks! 

in. An Incomplete Intransitive Verb is one in 
which the predication is completed by a complement 
which the verb affirms of the subject: ' He looks 
tired.' 

1 12. The Complement maybe aNoun, a Pronoun, 
or an Adjective, and the Noun may be in the form 
of a word or a phrase or a clause. 

113. A large number of Verbs may be used either 
transitively or intransitively, and some may be used 
either in a complete or in an incomplete sense: 
' The horse kicked the hostler,' ' The ruffians kicked 
the traveler black and blue'; 'The horse kicks'; 
'God is, and is a rewarder! &c. 



38 Verb. 

114. Verbs have the following properties: Voice, 
Mood, Tense, Number, Person. 



A. 115- Voice is an inflection of the Verb to 
show that the subject of the Verb is either 

the doer, or else the recipient of the action ex- 
pressed by the verb. 

1 16. There are two Voices: 

I. The Active. 2. The Passive. 

117. The Active Voice represents the subject as 
doing or being: ' I hear a voice '; ' By that sin the 
angels fell '; ' Her mother seemed the youngest.' 

118. The Passive Voice represents the subject 
as a recipient of the action expressed by the verb: 
'The ball was struck.' 

(a) Occasional examples are found in which the subject is 
indirectly the recipient of the action: ' He was given a book ', 
instead of ' A book was given him.' This idiom is peculiar to 
English. 

B. 119. Mood signifies manner of assertion. 
There are three Moods : 

1. Indicative; 2. Subjunctive ; j. Imperative. 

120. The Indicative is used in the statement of 
facts, in questions and in conditions considered as 
facts. 

121. The Subjunctive is used to state, as conceiv- 
ed in the mind, a thing that does not actually exist: 
' Though he slay me, yet will I trust Him.' (He is 
not slaying me.) 



Verb. 39 

122. The Imperative utters a command, request, 
exhortation. 

C. 123. Tenses are inflections of the Verb 
that enable it to assign time. 

124. Time has two properties : 

1. Order Of Time — Past, Present, Future ; 

2. Kind Of Time- Imperfect J Aori^^ 

Perfect I ^ or i st - 

( Continuous. 

(a) The terms 'Imperfect', 'Perfect', and 'Continuous' 
sufficiently explain themselves. By ' Aorist ' is meant that 
Kind of Time in which the occurrence is stressed while dura- 
tion is left indeterminate. 

(b) 'Order' combined with 'Kind' gives twelve possible 
Tenses. All these are found only in the Indicative Active. 
Elsewhere, either the use does not call for all tenses, or else 
combinations would be awkward. 

D. 125. The Verb has two Numbers — Singular 
and Plural — corresponding with Number in 

Nouns. 

126. The Verb is inflected* in each Number for 
three Persons — First, Second and Third — corres- 
ponding with Person in Nouns. 



127. Besides the pure forms of the Verb, discuss- 
ed above, there are others, partaking of the nature 
of other Parts of Speech. These are the Infinitives, 
the Gerunds, and the Participles. 

(a) These constitute the non-finite forms— not limited to ' a 
subject — in contradistinction to the three Moods, which are in- 
cluded in finite forms — those limited to a subject. 

(b) The non-finite forms express only Kind of Time. 

* The definition of inflection should be kept in mjnd ; it does not necessarily 
mean change of form. 



40 Conjugation. 

128. Both the Infinitive and the Gerund partake 
of the nature of the Verb and the Noun, and are 
therefore, noun-forms of the Verb. 

(a) The Gerund ends in ing and differs somewhat in con- 
struction from the Infinitive. Compare with the Latin Ge- 
rund and Infinitive. 

129. The Participle partakes of the nature of the 
Verb and the Adjective. 



CONJUGATION. 



130. Conjugation is inflection of the Verb to show 
Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. 

131. There are two Conjugations, the Regular 
and the Irregular, distinguished by the manner of 
forming- the principal parts. 

132. The Principal Parts of a Verb are the Pres- 
ent Infinitive Active, the Past Indicative Active, 
and the Past Participle. 

133. The Regular Conjugation forms the Past 
Indicative and the Past Participle by adding (e)d or 
t to the Infinitive : fell, felled, felled; 

• j learnt, j learnt, 

' ( learn/, ( learn/. 

ftn«L 

(a) The / is used when the 'first stem-consonant is pro- 
nounced voiceless. This, owing to the wretched English or- 
thography, more frequently occurs with the sound than with 
the symbol : work^ (work/), stopped (stop/), &c. 

(t) To this Conjugation belongs the great body of English 
Verbs, and all new-made Verbs follow it. 

134. The Irregular Conjugation embraces those 



Conjugation. 41 

Verbs that form their Principal Parts by vowel- 
change (Old Verbs) ; some that have come from the 
Regular Conjugation because of irregular changes 
that have arisen; and a few anomalous forms from 
the Old Verbs (Preterite-Presents): give, gave 
given; teach, taught, taught; can, could. 

(a) The treacherous orthography often fails to register 
changes that have taken place: mean, meant; read, read (r^d). 

(b) The Preterite- Presents are Verbs whose past tense 
(Pieterite) acquired a present signification, and which then 
formed new Pasts. They are can, may, must, ought, shall, 
and wot (antiquated). Dare has become regular, except in 3rd 
sing., pres. ind., when it is followed by a negative and an in- 
finitive. Need, a regular Verb, follows its example, by analo- 
gy, it would appear. Will may be included here, since it is 
derived from a past subjunctive form. 

(c) The Principal Parts of be are derived from different stems. 

135. The English Verb has only two simple 
tenses ; all the rest are compound, formed by the 
help of auxiliaries. 

136. The Auxiliaries are used to help express 
time (and in periphrastic forms, mood), and to 
conjugate the Passive Voice. 

137. Shall and will are Auxiliaries of the Fu- 
ture, have (and its forms) of the Perfect Tenses, be 
(and its forms) of the Passive Voice, and of Contin- 
uous Time. 

(a) It is unnecessary to give the conjugation of the Auxilia- 
ries separately, as they will be given in the Regular Conjuga- 
tion. In the following paradigm, the forms usually given are 
in italics. 



4 2 



Regular Conjugation. 















&S 


tl4 














~~ ti 


P G - 




3D 


o2 

P ffl.H 


p.H 0, 

"&3© 


Singular. 

een helping, 
adst been helping, 
been helping ; 
PI u red. 


►,7 W> 

an a a 
S3t3 


if. — C 

.5 53 "a, 


T ~ V 




o 
= 

o 
n 


Singular. 
e been helpi 
hast been h 
as been help 

Plural. 


- p © 

© © o 

X^ © 

? > 5 


— © q 

S« © 

© © 


Singular 

have been 

ilt have b 

have bee 

Plural. 


i'i- 
» © > 






5 *,P 


rQrP'g 


— ? — 


I?"* 






> zisz 


- - >• 


'S s^ 




c3 P £ 








a o 


£o.S 


rt ° m 


01 s 2 


-= ° « 


d3« 






hHS 


^ — ^ 


P^H 




£}*£ 


CI 
V 




r-1* <N CO 


rH Ol CO 


hMW 


hnoq 


1-1 e* 00 


— ci BO 


PS 


















o 


Singular, 
are helped, 
nu hast helped, 
has helped; 
Plural. 


HI 


Singular. 
I had helped, 
Thou hadst helped, 
He had helped; 
Plural. 


1 1.1 


Singular, 
hall hare helped, 

ou wilt have In 1/ 
will luiri helped 

Plural, 
shall, hare helpi 
n u-ill hare hi l/>r 

ey "-ill ham h>l/ 






^^^ 


££S 


fctig 


Z£< 


b^S 






>^ 9t *S 


»n s aj 


1 ^<a*<* 


»i ®» 50* 


*A v; sij 


>-i ^j 03 



^■'3-B^fl4 , 7©8 

-S.«S 5 * >, 

lis £§.£ 

h oi eo i-h e* eo 



-3fl 






•5 c ^ 3-5 © £ .p 

35 ,P ~ ©2, 
08 g* © fe S 

► 8^8^ 

g 2 



■ L~ "© 



!,§« ©g-j» 

J oi eo" h e<i co 



>-5 ^j so ^ ®* ®o 



la § * ~ 



bo 0* a 



■5 2^-°^ 
Sj ^ © b 



© OJ 



iH3 



MM rn CO 00 












Regular Conjugation. 



43 







CO 

1=1 

O 

_G 

"S 
O 

o 


Singular. 
been helping, 
ave been helping, 
e been helping; 


Plural. 
We have been helping, 
You have been helping, 
They have been helping. 


Singidar. 
een helping, 
ad been helping, 
been helping; 


Plural. 
1 been helping, 
d been helping, 
ad been helping, 








1*1 


go 1 ;, 






o 
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i-H CN CO 


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3 






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«i-H 

2 




CO 

o 

<1 


Singular. 
I have helped, 
Thou have helped 
He have helped; 


Plural. 
We have helped, 
You have helped, 
They have helped 


Singular. 
I had helped, 
Thou had helped, 
He had helped; 


Plural. 
We had helped, 
You had helped, 
They had helped. 


03 

i 






>-H ®J So 


f-H <J} So 


>A <&i so 


>A <§i so" 


1 














t-H 






be 


Plural. 

1. We be helping, 

2. You be helping, 

3. They be helping. 


us 

.3 6)D 


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o 

► 
> 


CD 


CO 

O 

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Singidar. 

1. I be helping, 

2. Thou be helpin 

3. He be helping; 


Singular. 

1. I were helping, 

2. Thou were help 

3. He were helpin 


Plural. 

1. We were helpi r 

2. You were helpi 

3. They were help 




CO 

3 


Singidar. 
I help, 
Thou help, 
He help; 


Plural. 
! help, 
u help, 
ey help. 


Singular. 
I helped, 
Thou helped, 
He helped; 


Plural. 
We helped, 
You helped, 
They helped. 








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44 



Regular Conjunction. 



73 

o 
o 

is 

Ph 





O 

a 

a 
o 
O 






Ph 


GO 
O 








CO 
O 

a 
o 
O 






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o H .3 , - J 

oft 

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<s*eo 


Singular. Plural. 

2. Thou shalt help, You shall help, 

3. He shall help; They shall help. 






a 

CD 

CO 

Ah 


d 



^ 



si 



o 
Ph 



Regular Conjugation. 



45 



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>H ©} SO 






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| -C ^ „ -W 



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4 6 



Regular Conjugation. 



Ph 


o 

c 

6 






DO 




Singular. 

1. I have been helped, 

2. Thou have been helped, 

3. Ifo /taw 6e«n helped; 

Plural. 

1. Wg /taw 6een helped, 

2. You have been helped, 

3. They have been helped. 


Singular. 

1. I had been helped, 

2. 77(0*1 had been helped, 

3. iZe had been helped; 

Plural. 

1. We had been helped, 

2. You had been helped, 

3. They had bem helped. 




O 

.2 
6 




Singular. 

1. I were being helped, 

2. Thou were being helped, 

3. He were being helped ; 

Plural. 

1. We were being helped, 

2. You were being helped, 

3. They were being helped. 


■j. 

"C 
o 


Singular. 

1. I be helped, 

2. Thou be helped, 

3. He be helped; 

Plural. 

1. We be helped, 

2. You be helped, 

3. They be helped. 


Singular. 

1. I were helped, 

2. Thou were helped, 

3. He were helped; 

Plural. 

1. We were helped, 

2. You were helped, 

3. They were helped. 






Present. 


1 

Ph 



Regular Conjunction. 



47 





CO 








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P4 


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O 






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Pa% 






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^^ Pa 


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X 


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tf.„ 


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S-, 


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48 Conjugation. 

138. The Irregular Conjugation differs only in 
the Principal Parts, and it is, therefore, unnecessary 
to give a paradigm of it. 

139. It must not be supposed that every Verb 
has all the forms given in the paradigm; its signifi- 
cation may deny it a part of these. This is particu- 
larly the case with Intransitives and with Defective 
Verbs such as the Preterite-Presents. 

140. Grammarians insist upon shall for the First 
Person of the Future, and will for the Second and 
Third. This holds good for principal clauses, but 
the ground upon which the rule is based loses force 
in most subordinate clauses. 

141. It should be noted that forms in the Sub- 
junctive Mood do not change tor Person and Number. 

142. Instances of Imperatives in the Third Person 
are infrequent, the Imperative generally being sub- 
stituted by the Subjunctive (in an Optative sense), or 
by 'let' and the Infinitive. 

(a) The Imperative and the Subjunctive are distinguished 
by position. With the Imperative, the subject follows the 
Verb ; with the Subjunctive, it precedes : ' Come one, come 
all'; ' The Lord be praised', ' The Lord grant thee the desire 
of thy heart'. 



V. 

ADVERBS. 



143. Adverbs are for the most part derived from 
Nouns, Pronouns and Adjectives, many being merely 
oblique Cases of these (the Adjectives were at one 
time declined) : needs ,once(Gemt\VQs) ; ivJiilom,seldoin 



Adverbs. 49 

(Datives); why (Instrumental case of 'who'); &c. 
A number are formed by composition: some-times 
(Ace), bitter-ly (formed from Adj. by suffix). Some 
were formed from Adjectives by the suffix -e, and 
when this -e was lost they regained the Adjective 
form. Besides these, other Adjectives have come 
to be so used, especially in poetry. 

144. There are six classes of Adverbs: 

i. Adverbs of Place: here, down, thence, &c; 

jj. Adverbs of Time: then, soon, twice, &c; 

iii. Adverbs of Manner: how, thus, beautifully, &c; 

iv. Adverbs of Degree (measure) : much, too, partly, 
&c; 

V. Adverbs of Cause: why, therefore, zvherefore, 
&c, 

vi. Modal Adverbs: verily, not, no, yes, &c. 

(a) Modal Adverbs are such as show the way in which the 
thought is conceived, or is to be taken. They qualify, not the 
scope of the meaning of a word or an expression, but the man- 
lier of its application. 

(0) Adverbs of the other classes may be used as Modal 
Adverbs. Moreover, Adverbs of this class may qualify the 
application of a Noun — not its meaning— as, ' Even Homer 
sometimes nods.' 

145. The only inflection possessed by Adverbs 
is Comparison. 

(a) As with Adjectives, so with Adverbs, not all are com- 
pared. 

146. A very few use the endings er, est, to form 
the Comparative and the Superlative, as soon, sooner, 



5<d Connectives. 

soonest, the majority using more and most. Several 
are irregularly compared, as well, better, best. 

147. The Adverb there is often used as a ' dum- 
my', • simply to hold the subject's place in the 
sentence, and then loses its adverbial force. 

(a) Inversion of subject and verb has certain uses in Eng- 
lish, as, Inversion to indicate a question. To distinguish from 
these the inversion of verb and subject in order to bring the 
subject near long attributes, there is put in the place of the 
subject, and is called an expletive. 



CONNECTIVES. 



148 A Phrase is a word-group that does not 
contain a verb. 

149. A Clause is a word-group that contains a 
verb. 

150. There are two kinds of Clauses: Principal 
and Subordinate. 

151. A Principal Clause has no grammatical de- 
pendence upon any other word: 'Time flies.' 

152. A Subordinate Clause occupies to some word 
a relation of dependence: ' The man w//('/« I saw. 

(a) The Subordinate Clause does duty as a Noun, an Ad- 
jective, or an Adverb. 

153. There is inter-relation between word and 
word of the sentence. This is in part expressed by 
inflection, and, where inflection does not serve the 
purpose, a set of words called Connectives is used. 

154. There are two classes of Connectives: those 



Prepositions. 51 

connecting elements of equal rank; those connect- 
ing elements of unequal rank. 

(a) When the elements are of lower rank that which is 
joined to the other is a modifier of the other, in some way de- 
pendent upon it. 

155. There are two kinds of Connectives: Pre- 
positions and Conjunctions. 



VI. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

156. The elements connected by Prepositions 
are always of unequal rank. In 'land of Israel', 
'of Israel' tells what 'land' (that is, qualifies 'land'), 
therefore, is dependent upon it and is of lower rank. 

(a) Prepositions were originally adverbial forms, and were 
at first placed with Nouns to make clearer the relation to be 
expressed, and this use increased as cases were lost. They 
are, therefore, substitutes for case-endings. 

(b) They were at first usually prefixed to the Verb ; next, 
they were detached from the Verb and stood away from the 
Noun, often toward the end of the clause; finally they were 
placed before the Noun, whose relation they helped to show. 

(c) The last is the ordinary construction in Modern English, 
but the second is of frequent occurrence, and there are rem- 
nants of the first: 'The man that he came with/ 'He with- 
stood me (where with has the old sense of 'against'). 

{d) Prepositions are occasionally post-positive, generally 
in poetry: 'The fields among', 'The whole world over\ 

157. To the original Prepositions have been 
added a number from various sources. Some are 



52 Prepositions. 

compounds, as unto, beyond ; others are derived 
from Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs: across, beside; 
along, aslant; save, during, concerning. 

158. When two Prepositions are used together, 
the second introduces a Noun-phrase that is in the 
Accusative case with the first. In 'he came from 
over the sea', 'over the sea' names the place, and 
is, therefore, a Noun-phrase. This construction is 
similar to 'at my friend's,' where friend's is a Geni- 
tive, used to name a place. (Compare with the 
Greek e?i Haidou.) 

159. It is an error to say that Prepositions take, 
or govern, an object; only those words that express 
action can have an object, for an object is an end to 
be reached. A Noun is put in the Accusative case 
to express a certain relation, and a Preposition is 
put with it to make clearer what that relation is. 
For example, in Latin the Preposition in is used 
with either the Accusative or the Ablative, and the 
case is not governed, or determined, by the Prepo- 
sition, but by the Verb. 



VII. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

160. Prepositions can connect only elements of 
unequal rank, and in this case only Nouns (whether 
they be words, phrases or clauses), or Pronouns, 
with some other word; but it often becomes neces- 
sary to join together elements of equal rank, also 



Conjunctions — Interjections. 53 

elements of unequal rank in which the subordinate 
element is a clause of any kind. Hence: 

161. There are two classes of Conjunctions: Co- 
ordinate and Subordinate. 

162. Co-ordinate Conjunctions connect elements 
of equal rank, whether words, phrases, or clauses. 

(a) The principal Co-ordinate Conjunctions are and, also; 
or, either — or, neither — nor, else; but, yet, however; for; 
therefore, hence, then; &c. Many phrases are used for this 
purpose. 

163. Subordinate Conjunctions introduce clauses 

that qualify, or depend upon, some word. 

(a) Subordinate Conjunctions are derived from Relative 
and Demonstrative terms (Pronominals) and from Prepositions, 
or from these in composition with other words, and from Verbs: 
after (Prep.), when {Ret.}, that (Dem.), be-cause {Prep, and 
Noun), if (<a Noun f ), notwithstanding , except, provided 
(Verbs). 

(b) There are four classes of Subordinate Conjunctions: 
Time, Place, Manner, Cause; but the discussion of these be- 
longs properly to Analysis. 



VIII. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

164. An Interjection is a word, or a phrase, used 
to express feeling. 

(a) Interjections do not have grammatical connection with 
other words in a sentence, and do not, strictly, constitute a 
Part of Speech, but it is convenient thus to classify them. 

(b) Among the most common Interjections are O, oh, ah, 
alas, to, well, why (pronounced wy), tut, hollo. 



54 



Appendix. 



APPENDIX. 

Rules for Parsing will be found in Part III, when 
that appears. The rules usually found in grammars 
may readily be adapted, and with the following 
additions will suffice for drill-work. 

i. Adjectives are used in three ways: Attribu- 
tively, Appositively, Predicatively. 

2. An Adjective in the Attributive use imposes 
upon its Noun a restrictive — that is, a necessary — 
qualification: ' A wJiite horse is hard to keep clean.' 

(a) The usual position of the Adjective in this use is im- 
mediately before the Noun, always following the Articles and 
all other Adjectives derived from pronominal stems, such as 
that, such, &c. 

{b) It may follow its Noun when the Article goes with it : 

1 Alexander the Great.' 1 

3. An Adjective in the Appositive use adds an 
explanatory qualification that is given, not as ne- 
cessary to the truth of the assertion, but merely for 
information: 'We three children, small and merry! 

(a) In this use, the Adjective may be prepositive or post- 
positive, but it does not come between the Noun and any one 
of the class of words mentioned in 2 (a). 

4. An Adjective in the Predicative use is affirmed 
by the Verb about the subject or the object: 'Life 
is earnest', 'They call me great' 

(a) The Pronoun, with which an Attributive Adjective is 



' Appendix. 55 

rarely used, may be qualified by an Appositive or a Predicative 
Adjective with perfect freedom. 

5. Hence: 

I. An Attributive Adjective imposes upon its noun a 
restrictive qualification. 

II. An Appositive Adjective adds an explanatory 
qualification. 

III. A Predicative Adjective is affirmed by the Verb 
about the subject or the object. 

A nd: 

IV. A Preposition shows the use of a Noun. 

6. As Infinitives, Gerunds and Participles partake 
of two natures, they should be parsed according to 
each. 

7. Take care to parse the Infinitive separately 
from its auxiliary till the pupil understands the 
construction. 

Below, a model for parsing is suggested. Some 
may find another method more satisfactory, but the 
pupil should by no means be allowed to diagram a 
sentence till he can parse it. It is too tedious and 
burdensome to require all the details about every 
word; just those points should be brought out that 
are logically important; for example, when any 
thing is dependent upon number and person, they 
should be mentioned; otherwise, omitted. 

A few sentences are given to be parsed. These 
should be supplemented by selections made by the 
teacher, who should classify and present them in 
such order as he finds best for the pupils, and the 
pupils should be required to bring to be parsed 



56 Appendix. 

sentences of such classes till they thoroughly un- 
derstand them. The effort to find sentences of the 
required description is in itself good drill in logical 
parsing. 

^-Dem. Pron., nom., subj. of shall. 

that— Rel Pron., nom., subj. of endureth. 

endureth — Intr. compl. Verb, indie, mood. 

to— Prep., shows the use of end. 

the— Am. Adj., limits end. 

end — Noun, ace. with to, which joins it to endureth; the 

phrase 'to the end' is therefore adverbial. 

shall — Trans, compl. Verb, ind. mood. 

, T r S Intrans. incompl. Verb; 
oe—inx. j NouUj acC-> obj - ect of sha n 

, „ . S From trans, compl. Verb; 
saved— Part, j Predic A(Jj ? affirmed about ke% 

1. Earth with her thousand voices praises God. 

2. We knew it to be him. 

3. The sun seemed shorn of his beams. 

4. His daily teachers had been woods and rills. 

5. Waiting till the west wind blows, 
The freighted clouds at anchor lie. 

6. We are not weak if we make a proper use of those means 
which the God of nature hath placed in our power. 

7. He that fights and runs away, 
May live to fight another day. 

8. Now, night descending, the proud scene was o'er. 

9. When I did first impart my love to you, 
I freely told you all the wealth I had 
Ran in these veins. 

10. Duller shouldst thou be than the fat weed, 

That roots itself in ease on Lethe {Lethe's] wharf, 
Wouldst thou not stir in this. 

11. These honors bring happy Britain peace. 

12. Your wife would give you little thanks for that, if she 
were by to hear you make the offer. 



Appendix. 



57 



13. Had ancient times conspired to disallow 

What then was new, what had been ancient now ? 

14. But that I am forbid 

To tell the secrets of my prison house, 
I could a tale unfold whose lightest word 
Would harrow up thy soul. 

15. Seeing is believing. 

16. Our island home is far beyond the sea. 

17. Your If is the only peace-maker: much virtue in If. 

18. Now blessings light on him that first invented sleep : 
it covers a man all over, thoughts and all, like a cloak. 

19. Many a morning on the moorlands did we hear the 
copses ring. 

20. I will work in my own sphere, nor wish it other than it is. 

21. Flee from the wrath to come. 

22. I heard him declaim. 

23. The gods are hard to reconcile. 

24. The rain threatening to fall, we left. 

25. He is worth a million of dollars. 

26. My friend is about to leave me. 

27. A French King was brought prisoner to London. 

28. Death grinned horrible a ghastly smile. 

29. Haste thee, Nymph, and bring with thee Jest and 
youthful Jollity. 

30. The King of England's crown could not repay the loss. 

31. He was seen to follow slowly after them. 

32. While on the coast, they went fishing. 

^^. There is no doubt of his being a great statesman. 

34. By being an obedient child, you will secure the appro- 
bation of your parents. 

35. He hopes to merit heaven by making earth a hell. 

36. Some people never will distinguish between predicting 
an eclipse and conspiring to bring one on. 

37. Returning were as tedious as go o'er. 

38. Cursed be he that setteth light by his father or his 
mother. 

39. None but the brave deserve the fair. 

40. Who steals my purse steals trash 



